Do you see sexuality as a biological given or Essay Example

Do you see sexuality as a biological given or Essay Make you see gender as a biological given or as a societal building? Critically reflect upon your place. ( 2220/ 2000 ) Introduction In the 19th century biological accounts for gender became ascendent over the old theological 1s ( Kimmel, 2000: 22 ) . In some respects such accounts match our common sense’ apprehension of human gender, for after all is non sexuality finally the concern of biological science and reproduction? However, it is every bit true that the medical professions have played an of import function in the subjugation of homosexualism ( Marshall, 1983: 165 ) . In the first subdivision I explore the biological account of gender, demoing that such an attack is unequal at explicating human gender and the manner that it changes historically. In the 2nd subdivision I examine the statement that gender is in fact a societal building: that gender is learned behavior. In the decision, I sound a note of cautiousness, reasoning that, following Connell ( 2002 ) , what is needed is a manner of speculating gender, and more specifically gender, which includes both the societal and biological dimensions. We will write a custom essay sample on Do you see sexuality as a biological given or specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Do you see sexuality as a biological given or specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Do you see sexuality as a biological given or specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Sexuality as a Biological Given In this subdivision I explore biological accounts of gender, particularly within depth psychology. An illustration is found in the work of Marie Bonaparte ( in Thompson, 2003 ) . Marie Bonaparte ( 1882-1962 ) , a member of the ( in ) celebrated Bonaparte household, was a patient of Freud in the 1920s and 1930s. Following her analysis she developed a complex, though non needfully coherent ( Thompson, 2003: 366 ) , theory of female gender. For Freud anatomy is destiny ( in Kimmel, 2000: 21 ) , therefore within Freudian depth psychology a woman’s gender is finally the consequence of her deficiency of Phallus ( see Marshall, 1983 ) . [ 1 ] Following Freud, Bonaparte argued that female gender is a consequence of women’s passiveness and biological sensitivity to trouble: †¦woman is biologically doomed to endure [ †¦ ] and she can make nil but submit passively to the government prescribed’ ( Bonaparte in Thompson, 2003: 357 ) . Further, Bonaparte argued that t he manner in which a woman’s anatomy is ordered determines her titillating life: that the intimacy of the button and vagina reflect the androgyny inherent in every woman’ ( Thompson, 2003: 357 ) . For Bonaparte, if a adult female becomes fixated on her button, experience’s clitoric climaxs, she demonstrates her inadaptation to function’ ( Bonaparte in Thompson, 2003: 364 ) , and finally becomes a renouncer’ who abandons hope of happening love ( Thompson, 2003: 35 ) . If she remains fixated on both her button and her vagina, she becomes a claimer’ , and therefore denies world and is caught in a struggle between her sadistic ( male ) and inactive ( female ) gender ( Ibid. p. 364 ) . If she is alternatively fixated on her vagina, she becomes an acceptive’ or a true woman’ as she no longer wants for a phallus, but alternatively wants for a kid ( Ibid. p. 359 ) . A normal’ gender is therefore the consequence of lone vaginal c limax and a desire for kids. For Bonaparte, any account of human gender has as its base the biological reality’ . Such an attack to human gender is non confined to historical beginnings, a speedy study of modern-day psychological science reveals a similar procedure: for illustration a recent article on human gender argues that four differences are apparent between male and female gender: that work forces show more involvement in sex ( Peplau, 2003: 37 ) ; that adult females emphasize committed dealingss as the proper context for sex, whereas work forces are more permissive towards insouciant sex ( Ibid. pp. 37-8 ) ; that aggression plays a larger function in male gender ( Peplau, 2003: 38 ) ; and eventually, that women’s gender is more easy altered by cultural and situational factors ( Ibid. ) . Although this study was based on the respondents ain perceptual experiences, this did non forestall the writer from reasoning that an adequate understanding [ of gender ] may necessitate separate analyses o f gender in adult females and work forces, based on the uniquebiological scienceand life experiences of each sex’ ( Ibid. p. 39, accent added ) . Early on societal scientists relied to a great extent on the usage of science’ to legalize their subjects, and so besides relied on biological accounts ( Kimmel, 2000: 23 ) . However, Emily Martin ( 1991 ) demonstrates that the facts’ of biological science have non merely been interpreted though a cultural lens, these facts have beenmade to suitwith culturally dominant ideals of male and female gender: the egg is perceived to be inactive, the sperm active ( Martin, 1991: 489 ) ; [ 2 ] social imagery’ is mapped onto the gametes, giving them male and female personalities, so as to put a steadfast footing for reimporting precisely that same imagination asnatural accounts of societal phenomena’ ( Ibid. p. 500, accent added ) . Further, if we except such accounts how can we so explain they manner in which gender has changed historically? Relatively recent developments in human gender, such as the development of homosexualism as a signifier of individuality ( Ma rshall, 1983: 167 ) can non be explained by biological science. Finally, whilst our perceptual experience of the sexes is dichotomous, the world of biological science is non: there may really be every bit many as five sexes, including the inter-sexed ( Connell, 2002: 29 ; 36 ) . Such a disparity has led many to see alternatively the societal beginning of both gender and gender. Sexuality as a Social Construction In this subdivision I examine the work of Salvatore Cucchiari ( 1981 ) , who argued that gender must alternatively be seen as a societal building ; that instead than being the consequence of biological science, human gender must be regarded as portion of the societal building of gender’ . Early efforts to explicate gender as a societal building were to be found in sex-role theory, where gender is learned during the procedure of socialisation ( Charles, 2003: 2 ) . Aberrance from normal’ gender, such as homosexualism, would therefore be a consequence of a failure’ in socialisation ( Connell, 1987: 49 in Charles, 2003: 2 ) . By the 1970s, the impact of second-wave feminism had led many theoreticians to situate a differentiation between sex’ and gender’ ( Connell, 2002: 33 ) . Cucchiari ( 1981 ) , pulling on this development, conducted an interesting thought experiment’ in which he attempts to logically infer the development of gender and gender in pre-history. In a complex and disputing article his attack may be divided into cardinal phases: foremost he postulates a crude society without gender dealingss ; next, he imagines how such a society would run: who would look after the kids, who would run etc ; 3rd, he outlines the manner that gender would subsequently develop in such a society. Cucchiari imagines a pre-gender universe which is functionally divided into those who look after the kids ( Child Tenders ) and those who look for nutrient ( Foragers ) ( Cucchiari, 1981: 41 ) . Membership of these groups is unstable, non ascribed, alterations over clip and is democratic and Unitarian ( Ibid. p. 42-50 ) : therefore he imagines aspacial, instead than a sexual, division. In this imagined pre-gender society, gender is both bisexual and unrestrained’ and physical differences between the sexes are unimportant ( Ibid. p.45 ) . Subsequently, as portion of the demand to develop ties with other bisexual hosts, groups begin to interchange kids ( Cucchiari, 1981: 50 ) . Later a crisis develops between the unitarian political orientation [ †¦ ] and the biological dissymmetry or exclusivity of proto-women’s ability to hold and suckle children’ ( Ibid. ) . This is ab initio resolved by consecrating adult females, taking to the hypostatization of the physi cal characteristics associated with reproduction – the chest and genitalias – but finally, as this entails a negative definition of proto-man, [ 3 ] the two functions become reciprocally sole and adult females are no longer worshipped ( Ibid. p. 51 ) . Alternatively, the adult females entirely look after the kids, while the work forces Hunt and competition within gender-related activities – and all activities are now circumscribed by the gender duality – tends to reenforce and lucubrate the very significances of maleness and femininity’ ( Ibid. p. 57 ) : the gender revolution has occurred. Following this gender revolution is thesexualrevolution ; as a consequence of the competition between members of the same sex, work forces as huntsmans and adult females as kid carriers, sexual attraction assumes a new importance ( Ibid. pp. 56-48 ) , and the sex that produces kids,heterosexual sex, becomes more extremely valued and finally requires societal cont rol, or countenances ( Ibid. p. 58 ) . Finally, the exchange of kids easy develops into the exchange of adult females and therefore represents the exercising of laterality by some grownup members of the community over other grownups [ †¦ ] repairing the position of adult females as objects’ ( Ibid. p. 62 ) . Cucchiari’s attack is debatable ; foremost, it is to a great extent reliant on Freudian depth psychology ( Ibid. pp. 46-48 ) , which I discredited earlier for its covert trust on biological science: he posits the development of gender hierarchy as the consequence of asocietaloedipal crisis. However, Cucchiari argues that Freud’s theory allows the possibility that humanity ( past and hereafter ) need non take between the dictatorship of venereal primacy or the lawlessness of childish bisexuality’ , but alternatively take an intermediate sexual form’ : a non-repressive gender ( Cucchiari, 1981: 48 ) . Second, despite his averments that this is a mere thought experiment, he does try to back up his statement with mention to the archeological record ( Ibid. pp. 63-69 ) , so he argues that this procedure occurred in the Upper Palaeolithic period ( 35,000 B.C. to 12,000 B.C ) and is supported by the archeological stuff: The form of symbolic look of gender constructs during this era closely follows that in the theoretical account: an initial phase characterized by a chiseled, extremely specified feminine construct and correspondingly weak masculine representation: a in-between period of amplification in which both gender marks are related to each other in different contexts and mapped onto other sorts of marks: and eventually, toward the terminal of the Upper Palaeolithic, a clear, in writing representation of the Phallus but attendant weak and abstract rendition of female marks ( Ibid. p. 63 ) . This writer is non adequately experienced to judge the cogency of his statement here ; nevertheless, his thought experiment does let us to conceive of a gender-free universe, to see that gender and gender are socially constructed, and so conceive of that sexual and gender equality is possible in the hereafter. Decision In decision, we can see that biological accounts, including those of depth psychology, do non adequately account for human gender. Not merely does gender form our sexual relationships ( Connell, 2002: 143 ) , gender is a portion of the procedure in which gender is socially constructed, so, gender lies at the bosom of any gender system’ ( Cucchiari, 1981: 37 ) . Simone de Beauvior stated that One is non born, but instead becomes, a woman’ ( in Connell, 2002: 4 ) , it might be better to state that one is non born heterosexual/ homosexual/ bisexual, but instead becomes so ; gender is a affair of societal building, non of biological science, and is constructed as portion of the procedure of gender building: Human gender is fictile, non capable to stiff familial or hormonal patterning, but determined by the acquisition and symbolic countries of the brain’ ( Cucchiari, 1981: 38 ) . However, a concluding note of cautiousness is needed: gender is a societal building, but this does non intend that it is free from all the restraints imposed by biological science ; one is non wholly free to build one’s gender any more than one is free to build one’s ain gender. The societal building of both gender and gender is limited by and affects the human organic structure: Bodies can non be understood as merely the objects of societal procedure, whether symbolic or disciplinary. They are active participants in societal process’ ( Connell, 2002: 39-40 ) . The sociology of gender used to be chiefly concerned with the survey of aberrance ( Gamson and Moon, 2004: 47 ) , but queer theory’ is now in danger of situating genders as divorced from the organic structures that pattern them, and therefore sabotaging the part it can do to the wider survey of society. Bibliography Charles, Nickie ( 2003 ) Theorizing Gender’ ,Gender in Modern Britain, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 1-19. Connell, R.W. ( 2002 )Gender, Cambridge: Polity Press. Cucchiari, Salvatore ( 1981 ) The Gender Revolution and the Passage from Bisexual Horde to Partrilocal Band: The Origins of Gender Hierarchy’ ,Sexual Meanings: The Cultural Construction of Gender and SexualitY, Ortner, S and Whitehead, H ( Eds. ) , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 31-79. Gamson, Joshua and Moon, Dawne ( 2004 ) The Sociology of Sexualities: Fagot and Beyond’ ,Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 30, pp. 47-64. Kimmel, Michael S. ( 2000 ) Ordained by Nature: Biology Constructs the Sexes’ ,The Gendered Society, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 21-46. Martin, Emily The Egg and the Sperm: How Science has Constructed a Romance Based on Stereotyped Male-Female Roles’ ,Signs, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 485-501. Marshall, John ( 1983 ) The Medical Profession’ ,Prejudice and Pride: Discrimination against Gay People in Modern Britain, London: Routledge, pp. 165-193. Peplau, Letitia ( 2003 ) Human Sex: How do Men and Women Differ? ’ ,Current Directions in Psychological Science, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 37-40. Thompson, Nellie L. ( 2003 ) Marie Bonaparte s Theory of Female Sexuality: Fantasy and Biology’ ,American Imago, Vol. 60, No. 3, pp. 343-378. 1

How to Decide Between the IELTS or TOEFL Exams

How to Decide Between the IELTS or TOEFL Exams Congratulations! You are now ready to take an important internationally recognized exam in order to prove your mastery of the English language. The only problem is that there are a number of exams to choose from! Two of the most important exams are the TOEFL and the IELTS. Often it is the students choice as to which one they want to take since both exams are accepted as meeting the entry requirements for academic settings. However, in some cases, the IELTS is requested for visa purposes to Canadian or Australian immigration. If this is not the case, you have even more to choose from and may want to review this guide to choosing an Engish test before you decide on the IELTS or TOEFL. Deciding Which One to Take Here are some points to take into consideration before you decide whether to take the IELTS or the TOEFL exam. These questions are very important because the IELTS exam is maintained by the University of Cambridge, whereas the TOEFL exam is provided by ETS, a US company based in New Jersey. Both tests are also different in how the test is administered. Take note of your answers: Do you need the IELTS or the TOEFL for academic English? If you need the IELTS or TOEFL for academic English, then keep answering these questions. If you dont need the IELTS or TOEFL for academic English, for example for immigration, take the general version of the IELTS. It is much easier than either the IELTS academic version or the TOEFL!Are you more comfortable with North American or British/UK accents? If you have more experience with British English (or Australian English), take the IELTS as vocabulary and accents tend more towards British English. If you watch a lot of Hollywood movies and like US idiomatic language, choose the TOEFL as it reflects American English.Do you feel more comfortable with a wide range of North American vocabulary and idiomatic expressions or British English vocabulary and idiomatic expressions? Same answer as above! IELTS for British English TOEFL for American English.Can you type relatively fast? As you will read below in the section on key differen ces between the IELTS or TOEFL, the TOEFL requires that you type your essays in the written section of the test. If you type very slowly, we would strongly recommend taking the IELTS as you handwrite your essay responses. Do you want to finish the test as quickly as possible? If you become extremely nervous during a test and want the experience to end as quickly as posable, the choice between IELTS or TOEFL is easier. The TOEFL lasts approximately four hours, whereas the IELTS is significantly shorter - about 2 hours 45 minutes. Remember, however, that shorter does not necessarily mean easier!Do you feel comfortable with a wide range of question types? The TOEFL exam is made up of almost entirely multiple choice questions. The IELTS, on the other hand, has a much wider range of question types including multiple choice, gap fill, matching exercises, etc. If you do NOT feel comfortable with multiple choice questions, the TOEFL is not the test for you.Are you proficient at taking notes? Note taking is important on both the IELTS and the TOEFL. However, it is much more critical on the TOEFL exam. As you will read below, the listening section, in particular, depends on note-taking skills in the TOEFL as yo u answer questions after you have listened to a longer selection. The IELTS asks you to answer questions as you listen to the exam. Major Differences Reading:TOEFL - You will have 3 to 5 reading selections of twenty minutes each. Reading materials are academic in nature. Questions are multiple choice.IELTS - 3 reading selections of twenty minutes each. Materials are, as in the case of the TOEFL, related to an academic setting. There are multiple type questions (gap fill, matching, etc.)Listening:TOEFL - The listening selection very different from the IELTS. In the TOEFL, you will have 40 to 60 minutes worth of listening selections from lectures or campus conversations. Take notes and respond to multiple choice questions.IELTS - The largest difference between the two exams is in listening. In the IELTS exam, there are a wider variety of question types, as well as exercises of differing lengths. You will answer questions as you move through the listening selection of the test.Writing:TOEFL - Two written tasks are required on the TOEFL and all writing is done on the computer. Task one involves writing a five-paragraph essay of 300 to 350 words. Note taking is important as the second task asks you to take notes from a reading selection in a textbook and then a lecture on the same topic. You are then asked to respond using notes by writing a 150- to 225-word selection integrating both the reading and listening selection.IELTS - The IELTS also has two tasks: the first a short essay of 200 to 250 words. The second IELTS writing task asks you to look at an infographic such as a graph or chart and summarize the information presented. Speaking:TOEFL - Once again the speaking section differs greatly between the TOEFL and the IELTS exams. On the TOEFL you are asked to record responses on the computer of 45 to 60 seconds to six different questions based on short descriptions/conversations. The speaking section of the test lasts 20 minutes.IELTS - The IELTS speaking section lasts from 12 to 14 minutes and takes place with an examiner, rather than a computer as on the TOEFL. There is a short warm-up exercise consisting mainly of small talk, followed by a response to some sort of visual stimulus and, finally, a more extended discussion on a related topic.

Emotionally intelligent leaders and their impact on followers' Essay - 1

Emotionally intelligent leaders and their impact on followers' performance and well-being A critical review of the literature - Essay Example These have become increasingly important elements of Emotional Intelligence in every organization. It plays a vital role in leadership and management and has an influence on the employees working in an organization. In the first part of the paper, we will focus on critical review of emotional intelligence in leadership and how they have an influence on employees. In the second part, a reflection for practice will be presented with evidences from literature and evaluation of EI scores. Critical Review of Literature Leadership & Emotional Intelligence at Workplace Research indicates that leaders who constitute high level of emotional intelligence in the workplace are getting better outcomes and increased work performances by the employees. Building and sustaining relationships is an important aspect of management and the recognition of these emotions through self management and relationship management enhances the emotional intelligence of leading bodies. These may also help leaders re spond better in various difficult situations and be able to understand the complexities in situations. An increased amount of self awareness through emotional intelligence causes empathy and understanding among the leaders and the subordinates as stated by Collins(2011). Even though it has been believed that personality and psychological traits may appear to be somewhat stable (Costa, 1992) but in reality this may not be the case, managers can improve their leadership skills by understanding their strengths and weaknesses through self-awareness and self-regulation and understand and enhance a leadership style, Jennings(2012)which may have a profound impact on the environment. However, there can be few unanswered questions which need to be examined like determining a natural style for an appropriate situations and ways to achieve the desired impact of that leadership style. It is also necessary to measure and see if these levels of emotional intelligence will have a positive impact o n employees or not. Some scholars argue to that emotional intelligence may not perceived as too important for senior managerial positions Crandall(2007)while some claim it is difficult to attain intelligence as it is a part of an individual’s personality. Some scholars believe that emotional skills can be developed and enhanced through learning and experience (David R. Caruso, 2004). Higher levels of emotional intelligence in leadership give rise to higher productivity in the organization in the following areas; Participative Management When a leader shows empathy in building relationships with the employees then they welcome and acknowledge feedback from employees relating to any task. They also value interdependency between work groups. Leaders executing emotional intelligence in the workplace are always seen as good listeners and always implement change by getting input from employees and subordinates, cooperate with the workforce to understand their emotions and foster go od working relationships in the workplace (Lorne & Robert, 1991). Self Awareness, Straightforwardness & Composure As cited by Gallagher(2012), when emotional intelligence supersedes, the leader or the manager has a clear understanding of their strength, weaknesses and they are able to control their expressions and responses in stressful situations. In return, the employees may feel at ease during work and